Research Article |
Corresponding author: Osfar Sjofjan ( osfar@ub.ac.id ) Academic editor: Danka Obreshkova
© 2023 Muhammad Andika Haraharap, Osfar Sjofjan, Lilik Eka Radiati, Muhammad Halim Natsir, Rony Abdi Syahputra, Fahrul Nurkolis.
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Citation:
Haraharap MA, Sjofjan O, Radiati LE, Natsir MH, Abdi Syahputra R, Nurkolis F (2023) A current insight and future perspective of edible bird nest as caviar of the east. Pharmacia 70(4): 1135-1155. https://doi.org/10.3897/pharmacia.70.e112494
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Edible bird’s nest (EBN) is a highly valuable food product obtained from swiftlet nests, primarily those of the Aerodramus genus. Due to its purported health benefits and exceptional taste, EBN is often referred to as the “caviar of the East.” This abstract presents a comprehensive review of the current state of EBN research, focusing on its chemical composition, nutritional value, pharmacological effects, and safety considerations. The chemical composition of EBN is intricate and influenced by various factors, including bird species, geographic origin, nest collection time, and processing methods. It is primarily composed of proteins, polysaccharides, minerals, lipids, and a wide range of bioactive compounds such as sialic acid, amino acids, and antioxidants. Additionally, EBN has demonstrated antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and anti-aging properties attributed to these bioactive constituents. While EBN is generally considered safe for human consumption, it is essential to address concerns related to potential contaminants like heavy metals, microbial pathogens, and allergens. This review offers a comprehensive overview of previous research conducted on residual impurities that may be present in edible bird’s nests (EBNs). The review encompasses various aspects, including, the regulatory framework and associated concerns regarding EBNs, the levels of nitrite and nitrate detected in EBNs, the presence of bacteria, fungi, and mites in EBNs, the identification of allergenic substances in EBNs, and the presence of heavy metals and excessive mineral content at different stages of EBN processing, including raw uncleaned (RUC) EBNs, raw cleaned (RC) EBNs, and EBNs after undergoing treatment.
Graphical abstract:
Edible bird’s nest (EBN), swiftlet nests, chemical composition, nutritional value, pharmacological effects, safety considerations
Edible bird’s nest (EBN) is a remarkable and highly prized food product derived from the nests of swiftlets, a small bird species belonging to the Aerodramus genus (
Swiftlet taxonomy
The swiftlet, a small avian species belonging to the Collocaliini tribe within the swift family (Apodidae), presents challenges in birdtaxonomy due to limited observable variations in physical characteristics (
The Collocaliini Tribe comprises 36 distinct swiftlet species, categorized into four genera: Aerodramus, Hydrochous, Schoutedenapus, and Collocalia. Among these, seven species, specifically Collocalia esculenta and Collocalia linchi from the Collocalia genus, as well as Aerodramus fuciphagus, Aerodramus germani, Aerodramus maximus, Aerodramus unicolor, and Aerodramus francicus from the Aerodramus genus, are known to produce edible bird’s nests (EBN) (
The life cycles and behaviors of swiftlets in various habitats have been meticulously observed and extensively studied over the past century. As noted by
Parameters | Species | References | |
---|---|---|---|
White-nest Swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus) | Black-nest Swiftlet (Aerodramus maximus) | ||
Reproductive cycle of a swiftlet species: egg | roughly 92 to 120 days, a solitary egg clutch, with an estimated egg size ranging from 16 to 25 mm | roughly 92 to 120 days, two eggs per clutch, with an approximate egg size of 10 to 15 mm | ( |
The incubation and fledging durations | 23±3 days | 43±6 days | ( |
Swiftlets engage in year-round breeding activities | between the months of October and February | ( |
|
Construction of a single nest by swiftlets | typically requires around 30–45 days during the breeding season, but in the non-breeding season, this process takes approximately 60–80 days | ( |
|
Construction of nests | mostly undertaken by male swiftlets throughout a span of around 35 days. both male and female swiftlets engage in the process of nest building | ( |
The research conducted by Reichel et al. in 2007 focused on Mariana swiftlets in the Saipan region, revealing specific developmental milestones in nestlings. Newborn nestlings were observed to have pink skin and lacked any natal down. Tiny pin feathers were detected under the skin on their dorsum and wings around days 4–6. By the ninth day, pin feathers were visible in all tracts, and by the thirteenth day, they began emerging through the skin. Feather emergence occurred between days 17 and 19. Nestlings started opening their eyes around the twentieth day, and their flight feathers reached about 50% growth by the thirty-seventh day. Around days 45–47, nestlings had a full set of feathers and could engage in short-distance flights. Typically, swiftlet species have a fledging period ranging from approximately day 39.8 to 53.3, although this duration may vary among species and regions. Initially, a newly hatched chick had a wing length of about 6 mm, which gradually increased until primary pin feathers emerged around day 12–13. Wing length exhibited continuous linear growth from day 13 to day 45. Similar to wing development, tail length displayed linear growth between day 15 and day 45. Nestling weight on the first day was recorded at 1.11±0.06 grams, with gradual growth leading to an approximate weight of 8.21 grams by day 29. It’s important to note that incubation periods, fledging age, clutch size, and growth rates may vary among different swiftlet species and regions (Table
Reproductive parameters of different swiftlet species | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Species | Incubation period (days) | Age at fledging (days) | Clutch size | Source and location | Reference |
Mariana Swiftlet (Aerodramus bartschi) | 22.95 | 47 | 1 | Saipan | ( |
White-nest Swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus) | 25.1 ± 0.3 | 39.8 ± 2.6 | 2 | Singapore | ( |
White-nest Swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus) | 23.0 ± 3.0 | 43.0 ± 6.0 | 2 | Malaysia | ( |
Black-nest Swiftlet (Aerodramus maximus) | 25.5 ± 2.2 | 45.9 ± 2.6 | 1 | Singapore | ( |
Black-nest Swiftlet (Aerodramus maximus) | 28.0 | 58.5 | 1 | Sarawak | ( |
Mossy-nest Swiftlet (Aerodramus vanikorensis) | 23.0 | 48.5 | 1–2 | Sarawak | ( |
White-rumped Swiftlet (Aerodramus spodiopygius) | 23.0 | 46.0 | 2 | Fiji | Turburton (1986) |
Mountain Swiftlet (Aerodramus hirundinaceus) | NA | 53.3 ± 1.2 | 1 | New Guinea | Turburton (2003) |
Clossy Swiftlet (Collocalia esculenta) | 21.5 | 42 | 2 | Sarawak | ( |
Illustrates the sequential stages involved in the process of swiftlet nest production and breeding, leading up to the point where the nests are considered suitable for harvesting: A. The process of collecting swiftlet nests through gentle tapping. B. Eggs laid by swiftlets. C. Recently hatched swiftlet offspring. D. Swiftlet chicks at the age of 10 days. E. Swiftlet chicks at the age of 17 days. F. Swiftlet chicks aged between 21 and 30 days. G, H. The swiftlet offspring have reached the stage of development when they are capable of flight. Additionally, the swiftlet nests have reached a state of readiness where they may be collected for harvesting.
Scholarly sources indicate that the growth and reproductive processes of swiftlets are influenced by specific environmental parameters. These conditions include a relative humidity of approximately 90%, temperatures ranging from 28 to 30 degrees Celsius, and the availability of an adequate food supply (
Country | Main region | Mainly Types of EBN |
---|---|---|
Indonesia | Kalimantan, Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi | Cave EBN, House EBN |
Malaysia | Sarawak and Sabah, East and west coasts of Malay Peninsula, (e.g. Kuala Lumpur) | Cave EBN, House EBN |
Thailand | South, Cent Apart | Cave EBN, House EBN |
Vietnam | Quy Nhon | Cave EBN |
The Philippines | Palawan island | Grass EBN |
Burma | Tanintharyi | House EBN |
Combodia | Koh Kong | House EBN |
China | Guangdong Province, Yunnan Province, Dazhou Island | House EBN |
Swiftlets exhibit natural breeding behavior within limestone caves, where they adhere to the walls and ceilings (
The nests of swiftlets come in three distinct colors: white, yellow (gold), or red (
The proximate values of edible bird’s nest (EBN) compounds obtained from swiftlet nests in various countries were examined, as presented in Table
This research examines the proximate values of edible bird’s nest (EBN) collected from birds habitats in different countries.
No. | Proximate (%) | Malaysia ( |
Thailand ( |
Philippine ( |
Indonesia ( |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Protein | 62 | 62.58 | – | 65.8 |
2 | Carbohydrate | 27.26 | 29.66 | 16 | 10 |
3 | Moisture | 7.5 | 19.82 | 5.58 | 10.87 |
4 | Ash | 2.1 | 6.72 | 1.5 | 1.5 |
5 | Fat | 0.14 | 0.96 | 0.05 | 0.04 |
Edible bird’s nest (EBN) is indeed renowned for its high protein content and its rich composition of essential amino acids and monosaccharides, making it a unique and valuable food item. The typical composition of EBN from the genus Aerodramus includes lipid (0.14–1.28%), ash (2.1%), carbohydrate (25.62–27.26%), and protein (62.0–63.0%) (Table
Component | Content | References |
---|---|---|
Proximate analysis (%) |
|
|
Moisture | 7.5–12.9 | |
Ash | 2.1–7.3 | |
Fat | 0.14–1.28 | |
Protein | 42–63 | |
Carbohydrate | 10.63–27.26 | |
Total nitrogen | 25.62–27.26 | |
Protein | 60.93 | ( |
Moisture | 16.04 | |
Fat | 0.09 | |
Ash | 1.96 | |
Carbohydrate | 20.98 |
According to (Table
This study examines the proximate composition, safety profile, and microorganism profile of various samples of edible bird’s nest (EBN) collected from different regions in Malaysia. The samples were obtained from the following locations: A – Alor Setar, Kedah; B – Sibu, Sarawak; C – Rompin, Pahang; D – Kuala Selangor; E – Johor Bahru; F – Jerantut, Pahang; and G – Port Klang, Selangor.
Parameters | Regions | Tolerance level | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A | B | C | D | E | F | G | ||
Proximate analysis (%) ( |
||||||||
Protein | 54.3 | 53.9 | 53.0 | 53.7 | 54.4 | 55.5 | 56.4 | NA |
Carbohydrate | 29.7 | 30.5 | 28.0 | 31.7 | 28.6 | 28.6 | 28.8 | NA |
Moisture | 10.8 | 12.4 | 12.3 | 13.1 | 14.0 | 12.1 | 12.1 | <15% |
Ash | 2.8 | 2.7 | 3.4 | 2.7 | 2.9 | 2.8 | 2.2 | NA |
Crude fat | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | N |
The differences in the nutritional composition between a half cup of Edible Bird’s Nest (EBN) and stripe-shaped EBN can be attributed to the unique structure and cleaning process of each type of EBN.
A half cup of EBN is primarily composed of a mucin-rich glycoprotein that solidifies upon exposure to air, resulting in the formation of a cup-shaped nest with minimal contaminants. This composition contributes to the higher protein and carbohydrate content observed in a half cup of EBN. The mucin glycoprotein in EBN possesses characteristics of both proteins and carbohydrates, making it a unique and nutrient-rich substance. On the other hand, stripe-shaped EBN refers to fragments obtained from the periphery of the EBN nest. These fragments attach to the surface of the bird’s home and have a hardened texture, which tends to accumulate a higher amount of contaminants. The cleaning process for stripe-shaped EBN can be laborious and may result in a significant loss of nutrients during the procedure. The increased ash content in stripe-shaped EBN may be attributed to the inclusion of feathers and other extraneous substances embedded within the solidified structure of the nest, as well as the removal of water-soluble minerals during the cleaning procedure. Stripe-shaped EBN may also contain fibrous proteins, such as keratin, collagen, or plant-based material derived from the swiftlet’s diet in its specific habitat. The caloric value of EBN is influenced by its protein, carbohydrate, fat, and fiber composition. The higher caloric content observed in stripe-shaped EBN compared to half cup EBN can be attributed to the elevated fiber content present in the stripe-shaped EBN. Dietary fiber contributes to the caloric value of a food item, and the differences in fiber content between the two types of EBN account for the variations in caloric content (Table
The proximate composition and total dietary fiber content of the half cup and stripe-shaped edible bird’s nest (EBN) were analyzed.
Nutritional composition (%) | Present study | ( |
( |
|
---|---|---|---|---|
EBN half cup | EBN stripe-shaped | House EBN | House EBN | |
Crude Protein | 56.96 | 54.70 | 42.00–63.00 | 53.00–56.40 |
Carbohydrate | 23.96 | 22.12 | 10.63–27.26 | 28.00–31.70 |
Moisture | 15.92 | 19.51 | 7.50–12.90 | 10.80–14.00 |
Ash | 3.16 | 3.67 | 2.10–7.30 | 2.20–3.40 |
Fiber | 3.89 | 19.96 | NA | NA |
Crude Fat | ND | ND | 0.14–1.28 | 0.1 |
Caloric value | 331.00 | 349.50 | NA | NA |
The amino acid composition of Edible Bird’s Nest (EBN) can indeed vary depending on factors such as the region of harvest, geographical location, and even the country of origin. The data presented in Table
The amino acids present in edible bird’s nest (EBN) sourced from Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and china are of interest for academic investigation.
Type of Amino Acid (mg/g) | Content | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Malaysia( |
Thailand( |
Indonesia( |
China( |
||
Essential Amino Acid (EAA) | |||||
Histidine | his | 3.3 | 0.08 | 2.3 | 2.02 |
Threonine | thr | 4.4 | 1.24 | 3,8 | 3.8 |
Tyrosine | tyr | 10.1 | 0.53 | 3.9 | 3.62 |
Valine | val | 10.7 | 1.08 | 3.9 | 4.16 |
Methionin | met | 0.8 | 8.35 | 0.5 | 0.47 |
Lysine | lys | 3.5 | 0.82 | 2.3 | 2.09 |
Isoleucine | ile | 10.1 | 1.1 | 3.8 | 1.83 |
Leucine | leu | 3 | – | 3.8 | 3.83 |
Phenylalanine | phe | 6.8 | 0.53 | 4.5 | 3.54 |
Tryptophan | trp | – | – | – | 0.70 |
Non Essential Amino Acid (N-EAA) | |||||
Hydroxyproline | hyp | – | – | 3.6 | 0.92 |
Aspartate | asp | 9.5 | 4.06 | 4.5 | 4.71 |
Serine | ser | 15.4 | 1.88 | 4.5 | 5.05 |
Glutamate | glu | 7 | 14.56 | 3.6 | 3.58 |
Glycine | gly | 5.9 | 1.52 | 1.8 | 2.05 |
Arginine | arg | 5.4 | – | 3.9 | 3.19 |
Alanine | ala | 4 | 0.92 | 1.3 | 1.43 |
Proline | pro | – | 0.98 | 3–6 | 4.08 |
Cysteic Acid | cya | – | 8.35 | – | 1.71 |
Total EAA | 48.4 | 12.49 | 20.3 | 26.4 |
The monosaccharide composition of Edible Bird’s Nest (EBN) is characterized by a notable presence of galactose and N-acetylhexosamine, as indicated in Table
The monosaccharides present in edible bird’s nest (EBN) derived from various geographical locations.
Monosaccharide | Monosaccharide content (%) | ||
---|---|---|---|
( |
( |
( |
|
Galactose | 16.9 | 4.58–5.43 | 11.19 |
Mannose | – | 0.48–0.99 | 1.05 |
Fucose | 0.7 | 0.36–0.78 | 1.14 |
N-acetylglucosamine | 5.3 | 4.76–5.64 | – |
N-acetylgalactosamine | 7.2 | 3.79–4.54 | – |
Sialic acid | 8.6 | – | – |
Rhamnose | – | 0.13–0.33 | 0.02 |
Xylose | – | – | 0.21 |
Total monosaccharide | 38.7 | 14.10–17.71 | 13.61 |
Galactose | 16.9 | 4.58–5.43 | 11.19 |
Mannose | – | 0.48–0.99 | 1.05 |
Table
The present study investigates the major and trace element composition of two distinct forms of edible bird’s nest (EBN), namely the half cup and stripe-shaped EBN.
Element Content (mg/100 g) | Present Study ( |
RNI- Intake Level (mg/day)( |
|||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Half Cup EBN | Stripe-Shaped EBN | House EBN | |||
Major element | Boron | 0.03 | 0.04 | NA | Not Set |
Calcium | 735.45 | 652.95 | 123.10–859.80 | 2500.00 | |
Magnesium | 105.97 | 129.57 | 88.30–152.80 | 350.00 | |
Potassium | 16.72 | 22.00 | 3.64–35.20 | Not Set | |
Phosphorus | 1.95 | 4.10 | 0.03–6.79 | 4000.00 | |
Sodium | 504.90 | 682.14 | 263.80–670.80 | 2300.00 | |
Sulfur | 240.16 | 211.32 | 624.40–884.00 | Not Set | |
Trace element | Chromium | 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.01–0.06 | Not Set |
Cobalt | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.00–0.06 | 0.04 | |
Copper | 0.88 | 2.34 | 0.47–11.06 | 10.00 | |
Iron | 0.68 | 1.13 | 0.16–1.94 | 45.00 | |
Molybdenum | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.00–0.09 | 2.00 | |
Selenium | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01–0.04 | 0.40 | |
Zinc | 0.44 | 0.76 | 0.05–2.26 | 45.00 | |
Manganese | 0.14 | 0.14 | 0.02–0.59 | 9.00 |
Table
The present study examines the concentration of heavy metals in both the half cup and stripe-shaped edible bird’s nest (EBN) samples.
Heavy metal content (pbb) | Present study ( |
Maximum regulatory | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Half Cup EBN | Limit | House EBN | ||
Arsenic | 8.76 | 23.81 | 0.06–34.35 | 150.00 * |
Cadmium | 3.15 | ND | 0.06–1.87 | 1000.00 ** |
Lead | 116.61 | 115.21 | 2.24–592.84 | 300.00 * |
Mercury | ND | ND | 0.06–70.18 | 70.00 * |
Nickel | ND | ND | 56.14–400.00 | 500.00 *** |
The presence of heavy metal contamination in edible bird’s nest (EBN) can have various sources, including both the swiftlet house environment and the processing/manufacturing procedures of EBN. These potential sources of contamination include, construction Materials: Heavy metals like lead can leach into the swiftlet house environment from materials such as rusty iron bars, pressure-treated wood, and lead-based paints used during construction, Processing and Manufacturing: The procedures involved in cleaning and processing EBN may involve the use of chemicals and materials that can introduce heavy metals into the final product, Swiftlet Feathers: Swiftlets can be exposed to heavy metals in the external environment, which can accumulate in their feathers. This contamination can potentially transfer to the nest material, Nest Contaminants: Even after the cleaning process, contaminants may persist in the nest material, including traces of heavy metals, The study’s findings indicate that the concentrations of metals tested in both half cup and stripe-shaped EBN samples are below the permissible limits, suggesting that EBN is safe for human consumption in terms of heavy metal contamination. However, it’s essential for continued monitoring and quality control to ensure that EBN products maintain these safety standards.
Research on the medicinal benefits of Edible Bird’s Nest (EBN) has involved extensive analysis of its composition over an extended period. The primary aim of this research is to identify the bioactive compounds present in EBN and understand their potential mechanisms of action. Here is a summary of the key components found in EBN: Protein Content: EBN is rich in protein, with a protein content ranging from 62.0% to 63.0% (Table
Summary of EBN compotition as medicinal properties of Edible Bird’s Nest (EBN).
Component | Content | References |
---|---|---|
Amino acid (molar percent basis) | ( |
|
Aspartic + asparagines | 2.8–10.0 | |
Threonine | 2.7–5.3 | |
Serine | 2.8–15.9 | |
Glutamic + glutamine | 2.9–7.0 | |
Glycine | 1.2–5.9 | |
Alanine | 0.6–4.7 | |
Valine | 1.9–11.1 | |
Methionine | 0–0.8 | |
Isoleucine | 1.2–10.1 | |
Leucine | 2.6–3.8 | |
Tyrosine | 2.0–10.1 | |
Phenylalanine | 1.8–6.8 | |
Lysine | 1.4–3.5 | |
Histidine | 1.0–3.3 | |
Arginine | 1.4–6.1 | |
Tryptophan | 0.02–0.08 | |
Cysteine | 2.44 | |
Proline | 2.0–3.5 | |
>Fatty acid analysis (%) | ( |
|
(P) Palmitric C16:0 | 23–26 | |
(O) Steric C18:0 | 26–29 | |
(L) Linoleic C18:1 | 22 | |
(Ln) Linolenic C18:2 | 26 | |
Triacylglycerol (%) | ( |
|
PPO | 14–16 | |
OOL | 13–15 | |
PLnLn | 18–19 | |
Monoglycerides | 27–31 | |
Diglycerides | 21–26 | |
Vitamin | ( |
|
Vitamin A (IU/mg) | 2.57–30.40 | |
Vitamin D (IU/mg) | 60.00–1280.00 | |
Vitamin C (mg/100g) | 0.12–29.30 | |
Elemental analysis (ppm) | ( |
|
Sodium (Na) | 330–20554 | |
Potassium (K) | 110–2645 | |
Calcium (Ca) | 798–14850 | |
Magnesium (Mg) | 330–2980 | |
Phosphorus (P) | 40–1080 | |
Iron (Fe) | 30–1860 | |
Sulfur (S) | 6244–8840 | |
Barium (Ba) | 4.79–41.09 | |
Strontium (Sr) | 4.25–21.90 | |
Silicon (Si) | 8.34–62.02 | |
Aluminium (Al) | 15–2368 | |
Manganese (Mn) | 3.58–12210 | |
Zinc (zn) | 19.95–72.40 | |
Copper (Cu) | 4.68–110.65 | |
Molybdenum (Mo) | 0–0.94 | |
Cobalt (Co) | 0–0.63 | |
Germanium (Ge) | 0.05–0.97 | |
Selenium (Se) | 0.12–0.77 | |
Nickel (Ni) | 0–0.47 | |
Vanadium (V) | 0.03–2.84 | |
Chromium (Cr) | 0–7.45 | |
Lead (Pb) | 0.50–4.08 | |
Cadmium (Cd) | 0–0.83 | |
Mercury (Hg) | 0.001–0.160 | |
Hormone determination | ( |
|
Testostrone (T) (ng/g) | 4.293–12.148 | |
Estradiol (E2) (pg/g) | 802.333–906.086 | |
Progesterone (P) (ng/g) | 24.966–37.724 | |
Luteinizing hormone (LH) (mIU/g) | 1.420–11.167 | |
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) (mIU/g) | 0–0.149 | |
Prolactin (PRL) (ng/g) | 0–0.392 |
Carbohydrate Content: Carbohydrates make up about 25.62% to 27.26% of EBN’s composition. Essential Elements: EBN contains essential elements such as calcium (1298 ppm), sodium (650 ppm), magnesium (330 ppm), potassium (110 ppm), phosphorus (40 ppm), zinc, and iron (30 ppm). Sialic Acid: EBN is notably rich in sialic acid (N-acetylneuraminic acid), contributing to around 9% of its total essential sugars. Sialic acid plays a significant role in brain development and neurological enhancement. Oligosaccharides: EBN contains oligosaccharide sequences, including sialic acid, which have the ability to affect cell detachment from microbes and parasites. Sialic acid is also associated with immune system modulation and mucus viscosity. Overall, the composition of EBN is characterized by its high protein content, essential amino acids, essential elements, and bioactive compounds like sialic acid and oligosaccharides, which may contribute to its potential health benefits. Researchers have been exploring these components to better understand EBN’s medicinal properties.
Sialic acid, a prominent component of Edible Bird’s Nest (EBN), offers several health benefits, including, LDL Cholesterol Reduction: Sialic acid has been shown to reduce low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels, contributing to improved cardiovascular health, Enhancement of Fertility: Sialic acid may play a role in fertility enhancement, Blood Coagulation Regulation: Sialic acid has properties that can regulate blood coagulation. In addition to sialic acid, EBN contains other glyconutrients, including:, N-Acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc): GalNAc is involved in synaptic functions between nerve cells and may impact memory. N-Acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc): GlcNAc serves as a precursor for glycosaminoglycans, which are essential for joint cartilage health. Glucosamine deficiency has been linked to conditions like arthritis and cartilage deterioration, Galactose: Galactose is another monosaccharide found in EBN, Fucose: Fucose is present in smaller amounts. The glycoproteins and proteoglycans found in EBN are known to contribute to various health benefits, including, Enhanced Bone Strength: EBN extract, when administered orally, has been associated with increased bone strength and higher calcium concentrations. Cartilage Flexibility: Proteoglycans in EBN contribute to cartilage flexibility and joint health. Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF) Activity: EBN extracts have demonstrated the ability to enhance the activity of epidermal growth factor (EGF), which plays a role in cellular processes and cell growth. These bioactive compounds and glyconutrients found in EBN contribute to its potential health-promoting properties and have been the subject of scientific research to better understand their effects on human health.
The consumption of edible bird’s nests (EBNs) carries potential health risks due to the presence of various microorganisms (Table
No | References | Type of samples | Microbes | Microbes after treatment |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | ( |
Raw uncleaned (house nest) | Bacteria (isolates) Acinetobacter sp., Brevibacterium sp., Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus shackletonii, Bacillus sp., Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus pumilus, Bacillus flexus, Bacillus circulans, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus aryabhattai, Deinococcus sp., Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus sp., Listeria fleischmannii, Microbacterium sp., Paenibacillus sp., Paenibacillus sp. 23-13, Paenibacillus agglomerans, Paenibacillus alvei, Staphylococcus nepalensis, Staphylococcus Kloosi, Staphylococcus sp., Staphylococcus sciuri, Staphylococcus sp. Y3 Virgibacillus halophilus | Double boiling Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus sp. |
Raw cleaned (commercial EBNs) | Bacteria (isolates) Acinetobacter sp., Acinetobacter radioresistens, Acinetobacter calcoaceticus, Brevibacillus sp., Brevibacterium sp., Bacillus sp., Bacillus badius, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus flexus, Bacillus lichniformis, Caryphanon sp., Deinococcus sp., Enterobacter cloacae, Enterobacter hormaechei Exiguobacterium sp., Solibacillus silvestris, Staphylococcus sp., Staphylococcus pasteuri, Staphyloccus saprophyticus, Staphylococcus sciuri, Sporosarcina saromensis | Double boiling Brevibacillus sp., Brevibacillus agri, Bacillus sp. | ||
2 | ( |
Raw and commercial nests | Mites (Isolates) Eustathia cultrifer, Pteroherpus garrulacis, Pterodectes amaurochalinus, Laminalloptes sp., Berlesella alata, Neochauliacia sp., Suidasia sp., Austroglycyphagus sp., Aleuroglyphus ovatus, Dermanyssus sp., Cheyletus sp., Tarsonemid, cunaxid mites, Collocalidectes sp., Streetacarus sp., Hemisarcoptes sp. and unidentified oribatid mites | N/A |
3 | ( |
Swiftlet feces in swiftlet farm houses | Bacteria (Isolates) Bacillus sp., Dermacoccus sp. 103, Enterococcus harae strain ss33b, Escherichia coli, Leucobacter iarius strain 40, Lysinibacillys sp. B4, Paenibacillus sp. Gh-134, Proteus sp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain 123, Sporasarcina sp., Staphylococcus sp. | N/A |
4 | ( |
Raw cleaned EBN | Mold (Isolates) Aspergillus spp. and Penicillium spp. | |
5 | ( |
Raw uncleaned (house nest) | Fungi (Isolates) Soil Fungi: Blastobotrys sp., Lichtheimia sp., Nigrospora sp., Paecilomyces sp., Perenniporia sp., Phialosimplex sp., Syncephalatrum sp., Sagenomella sp., Stephanoascus sp. Talaromyces sp, Plant Fungi: Coprinellus sp., Fomitopsis sp., Lasiodiplodia sp., Lenzites sp., Letendraea sp., Polyporales sp., Rigidoporus sp. Environmental Fungi: Aspergillus sp., Candida sp., Cladosporium sp., Neurospora sp., Penicillum sp., Eurotium sp. | Double boiling Soil Fungi: Phialosimplex sp. Plant Fungi: – Environmental Fungi: Aspergillus sp., Candida sp., Cladosporium sp., Neurospora sp., Penicillum sp., Eurotium sp. |
Raw cleaned (commercial EBNs) | Fungi (Isolates) Soil Fungi: Chrysosporium sp., Nigrospora sp., Sagenomella sp., Sebanicales sp. P, Plant Fungi: – Environmental Fungi: Aspergillus sp., Candida sp., Cladosporium sp., Neurospora sp., Penicillum sp. |
Table
The composition of edible bird’s nests (EBNs) includes bacteria, fungi, and mites.
No | References | Type of samples | Enumeration method | Source of samples | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Raw uncleaned EBN | Raw cleaned EBN | After treatment/ Others | ||||
1 | ( |
ND E. coli, S. aureus and Salmonella | Australian Standard- Escherichia coli, Samonella spp., Coliform, | RC: Seven RUC house nest samples from | ||
Total Plate Count: 2.3*105–25*105 cfu/g, Coliform ND- 43 cfu/g | and total plate count. Official AOAC method- Staphylococcus aureus | different regions in Malaysia then cleaned in lab. Seven regions include: | ||||
Mould <10–140 cfu/g | Bacteriological Analytical Manual | Alor Setar, Kedah; Sibu, | ||||
Yeast <10–10 cfu/g | of Food and Drug Authority- mould and yeast | Sarawak; Rompin, Pahang; Kuala Selangor; Johor Bahru; Jerantut, Pahang; and Port Klang, Selangor | ||||
2 | ( |
6.0*102–1.02*105 CFU/0g | Double boiling 0–2.4*102 CFU/g | Total Plate Count | RUC: Five Malaysia house nest from Kuala Sanglang, Pantai Remis, Kluang, Kajang and Kota Bharu | |
4.0*101–1.5*105 CFU/g | Double boiling | RC: Six commercial | ||||
0–2.4*102 CFU/g | sample purchase from five different Chinese traditional medicine shops from Malaysia and one from Medan, Indonesia | |||||
3 | ( |
Swiftlet feces 6.03–9.22 log10 CFU/g | Total Plate Count | Swiftlet feces from swiftlet houses located in ten places, including Kota Samarahan, Saratok, Semarang, Betong, Sarikei, Sibu, Sepinang, Maludam, Kuching and Miri in Sarawak | ||
4 | ( |
7.64–7.66 log CFU/g | Gamma Irradiation 20 kGy <2 log CFU/g | Total Plate Count | RC: Raw cleaned samples from Pahang and Terengganu | |
5.61–5.95 log CFU/g | Gamma irradiation 5 kGy <2–4.64 log CFU/g | Plate count -agar Brilliance Coliform-Coliforms | ||||
2.47–2.67 log CFU/g | Gamma irradiation 1 kGy <2 log CFU/g | Plate count agar Brilliance E. coli- E. coli | ||||
4.55–4.66 log CFU/g | Gamma irradiation 5 kGy <2 log CFU/g | Plate count – agar Rabbit Plasma; Fibrinogen – Staphylococcus aureus | ||||
4.8–5.10 log CFU/g | Gamma irradiation 5 kGy <3 log CFU/g | Plate count-agar Dichloran rose; Bengal chloramphenicol- Yeast and molds | ||||
Not detected | N/A | Plate count- agar xylose lysine deoxycholate agar and brilliant green agar- Salmonella spp. | ||||
5 | ( |
40–18,080 CFU/g | 40–2,640 CFU/g | N/A | Plate count- Sabouraud Detrose Agar- Fungi |
RUC and RC: Same sample batch with ( |
6 | ( |
Live 0–66.4 mites/g. Dead 15.9–2,613 mites/g. Total 18–2,613 mites/g. | Live 0 mites/g. Dead 0–88 mites/g. Total 0–88 mites/g. | N/A | Stereomicroscope- Mite |
RUC and RC: Same sample batch with ( |
Irresponsible makers frequently include adulterants, such as tremella fungus (Tremella fuciformisis), karaya gum (Sterculia urens), red seaweed, pig skin, egg white, and vermicelli rice, into edible bird’s nest (EBN) in order to augment its net weight and dimensions, hence enhancing its commercial value. The utilization of these chemicals as adulterants is attributed to their resemblance in terms of color, taste, and texture to the authentic bird’s nest salivary cement. This natural cement is known for its challenging detectability by unaided human vision, as noted by
Method | Content | Problem of detection methods | References |
---|---|---|---|
Empirical measures | Visual examination, burning tests, colouring checks based on observation and experience | Subjective and non-measureable | ( |
Composition analysis | Composition of lipids, proteins and hormones based on the range of | These constitutes are commonly found in most mammalian cells. The composition can be adulterated by materials that contain the same chemical compound, making this method nonspecific. | ( |
Optical microscopy | Characteristics of down feathers, nest powder, and nest texture from observation | Relies on operator experience and require specific operation technique | ( |
Scanning electron microscopy | Fibre array of micro-structure from high-resolution image | ( |
|
Fluorescence method | EBN give out blue-green luorescence at ultraviolet light at 365 nm | Although there was a significant difference of chemical fingerprint determined between the EBN and other materials, there is still very limited information on the EBN collected from different geographical areas which makes these methods operate under a small dynamic range. | ( |
Modified xanthoproteic nitric acid test | Proteins with amino acids carrying aromatic groups, especially in the presence of tyrosine and tryptophan, can be measured using a reflectance colour-meter which could detect adulterant at the concentration down to 1% in EBN | ( |
|
Gas chromatography (GC) | Composition of amino acids and oligosaccharide chain of five monoses such as D-mannitose, D-galactose, D-mannose, N-acetyl-D- galactosamine, N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, and N-acetylneuraminate | ( |
|
Capillary Gas chromatography (GC) | Amino acids composition | ( |
|
Infrared spectrometry (IR) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) | Characteristics of amino acids, proteins, and carbohydrates based on their functional groups | Carbohydrates and amino acids exist in most adulterants and are not specific characteristic ingredients in EBN, making these methods prone to inaccurate results. | ( |
High performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) | Amino acids composition | ( |
|
SDS-PAGE | Number and characteristics of protein bands | Adulterants in EBN samples cannot be determined unless the protein band or point is specific and identifiable. | ( |
Atomic absorption | Analysis of minerals | The minerals of EBN may be varied due to the geological factors which cause complication in developing the detection standard. |
|
Molecular biological technology | Detection of fibrinogen gene and cytochrome b gene | The detection of specific genes may be an efficient method to identify far homolog adulterant. However, it is not able to detect close homolog adulterant due to gene conservation. Generally, molecular detection method such as real- time PCR may require specific operation skill. | ( |
A modified xanthoproteic nitric acid test | Measure crude protein content (62%–63%) using a reflectance colorimeter which could detect adulterant at the concentration down to 1% in EBN | ( |
|
Genetic identification | An independent molecular phylogeny using cytochrome b mitochondrial DNA sequences | ( |
|
Hyphenated PCR and gel electrophoresis | The combination of DNA based PCR and protein based two-dimensional gel electrophoresis methods (down to 0.5% EBN in a mixture) | ( |
The effects of EBN extract are presented in a comprehensive manner, providing particular details, as outlined in Table
Summary the effects that have been investigated through the utilization of EBN extract.
Pharmacological activities | Sample preparation | Model | Control group | Results | Proposes mechanism and suggested acting compound | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Antiviral effects | Water extract (Enzyme extraction) | Madin-darby canine kidney cells (MDCK) | Non-hydrolyzed EBN and untreated cells/mice | EBN, after being hydrolyzed with pancreatin F, exhibited potent antiviral properties in MDCK cells and inhibited the binding of the virus’ hemagglutinin surface protein to erythrocytes. | By inhibiting the viral genes (NA and NS1), the bioactive compounds (sialic acid or thymol derivatives) in EBN demonstrated the potential for antiviral activity. Suggestion for an agent: Sialic acid or derivatives of thymol | ( |
Eye care effects | Water extract | Rabbit corneal keratocytes cell | Untreared cells | Low concentrations of EBN stimulated cell proliferation synergistically, particularly in serum-containing media. With the addition of EBN, corneal keratocytes retained their phenotypes, as demonstrated by both phase contrast micrographs and gene expression analysis. | BN induces corneal cell proliferation and is able to preserve their phenotypes and functionality by synthesizing stromal constituents. This was demonstrated by an increase in the functional gene expression of corneal keratocyte proliferation factors collagen type 1, ALDH, and lumican. The active substance neither proposed nor evaluated | ( |
Antioxidant effects | Water extract | Human neuroblastoma cell (SH-SY5Y) | Untreated cells | On SH- SY5Y cells, EBN demonstrated protective properties against hydrogen peroxide-induced toxicity and oxidative stress. Lactoferrin and ovotransferrin have antioxidant properties in SH-SY5Y cells as well. | EBN and its constituents reduced cytotoxicity induced by hydrogen peroxide and decreased reactive oxygen species (ROS) through increased scavenging activity. Lactoferrin and ovotransferrin within EBN may contribute to the overall functional properties of EBN Suggestion for an agent: Lactoferrin and ovotransferrin are components of egg whites. | ( |
Neuroprotective effects | Water extraction | Human neuroblastoma cell (SH-SY5Y) | Untreated cells | Observations of morphological and nuclear staining indicate that EBN treatment decreases the level of 6-hydroxydopamine-induced apoptotic alterations in SH-SY5Y cells. | EBN extract is more efficacious in enhancing reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, early apoptotic membrane phosphatidylserine externalization, and caspase-3 cleavage inhibition. This study obviously demonstrated that EBN extracts inhibiting apoptosis may induce neuroprotective effects against 6-hydroxydopamine-induced degeneration of dopaminergic neurons. | ( |
The augmentation of skeletal integrity | Enzyme extraction | Female sprague- dawley rats | Fed an AIN93G-based normal diet | The femur of rats who had ovariectomy and were administered with EBN extract exhibited an increase in calcium levels and enhanced bone strength. The administration of EBN extract resulted in an increase in dermal thickness, whereas there was no significant effect on serum estradiol content. | The synthesis of estrogen leads to accelerated bone loss during the initial ten years following menopause. There has been a suggestion that the use of EBN extract may have a positive impact on enhancing bone strength, while also potentially regulating the levels of serum estrogen. | ( |
Hot-water extraction | Human articular chondroytes cell (HACs) | Untreated cells | The application of EBN extract resulted in an augmentation of HACs proliferation, a decrease in the expression of catabolic genes, and a reduction in the formation of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). The present study observed an elevation in the gene expression of type II collagen, aggrecan, and SOX-9, as well as an increase in the creation of total sulfated glycosaminoglycan during the investigation of anabolic activity. | The EBN extract has the ability to decrease the expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP), cytokines, and other catabolic mediators. This reduction in expression can effectively mitigate the degradation of cartilage and slow down the degenerative process of osteoarthritic cartilage. | ||
Erectile dysfunction | Water extract (enzyme extraction) | Castrated male wistar rats | Un-castrated rats | The castrated rat that received a dosage of 9 mg/kg/day of EBN extract demonstrated a notable increase in testosterone and luteinizing hormone levels. Additionally, a considerable elevation in the penis index was noted. | The authors engaged in speculation regarding the potential impact of an elevated dosage of EBN extract (9 mg/kg/day) on sexual functions. The recommended active ingredient is testosterone; however, there is no available data to support the presence of EBN extract in it. | ( |
This study has highlighted the substantial differences in nutritional content between half-cup and stripe-shaped edible bird’s nests (EBNs), emphasizing the importance of considering these distinctions when evaluating EBN quality. It’s crucial to recognize that various forms of EBN can have distinct nutritional compositions due to factors like shape (half-cup or stripe-shaped), texture (soft or firm), and the presence of impurities. Importantly, both forms of EBN appear safe for consumption, as the levels of heavy metals detected in this study remained within permissible limits. To address the inherent subjectivity in human judgment, incorporating nutritional content as a grading criterion for Evidence-Based Nutrition (EBN) is advisable. This critical review has identified several knowledge gaps concerning potential residual pollutants in EBNs. These gaps encompass the need for further investigation into nitrite and nitrate levels, the presence of bacteria, fungi, mites, heavy metals, and other contaminants, as well as their impact on EBN color changes and allergenicity. Specific areas that warrant exploration include. Comparative studies of potential residual contaminants in different types of RC EBN products, such as cup-shaped EBN and instant cook EBN. An examination of various processing methods, including cleaning, drying, and sterilization, to assess their effectiveness in removing and mitigating contaminants during the transition from RUC EBN to RC EBN. Research on the effects of bleaching during the cleaning process. Investigations into the factors influencing color changes during the drying process. Collaboration between researchers and industry stakeholders in the EBN sector is essential to address these knowledge gaps effectively. Furthermore, policymakers can play a pivotal role in developing evidence-based regulations that align with industry realities. It is recommended to include heat-resistant bacteria, fungi, and allergens in the formulation of RC EBN standards. In summary, there is a compelling need for additional research to gain a deeper understanding of potential lingering contamination in EBNs.
The authors declare there is no conflict interest.
The authors thanks to Universitas Brawijaya and Pendanaan DRTPM Skema PMDSU Tahun 2023 (Pendanaan tahun II/ 015/E5/PG.02.00.PL/2023).